Hybrid vehicle

src: www.toyota-global.com

Hybrid vehicles use two or more different types of power, such as an internal combustion engine to drive an electric generator that drives an electric motor, ie. on a diesel-electric train using a diesel engine to drive an electric generator that drives an electric motor, and a diesel submarine when it shows up and the battery when submerged. Other ingredients for storing energy include pressurized liquids in hydraulic hybrids.

The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that different resources work better at different speeds and then switch from one to the other at the right time during the changing speed resulting in a win-win in terms of energy efficiency, since it translates into larger ones. fuel efficiency, for example.

Video Hybrid vehicle

Power

Mopeds, electric bikes, and even electric kick scooters are the simplest form of hybrids, powered by internal combustion engines or electric motors and muscle riders. The early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principle.

• In parallel bike hybrid human torque and motor are mechanically coupled to the pedal or one of the wheels, ie. using a motor hub, roller tapping into a tire, or a connection to the wheels using a transmission element. Most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type.
• In the series hybrid bikes ( SHB ) a user pedals a generator, fills the battery or feeds the motor, which gives all the required torque. They are commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing.

The first prototype published from SHB was by Augustus Kinzel (US Pat. 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds compiled SHB Electrilite with power electronics that allowed regenerative braking and stationary temporary staging. In 1995, Thomas Muller designed and built the "Fahrrad mit electromagnetischem Antrieb" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996 JÃÆ'¼rg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built the SHB and in 1998 modified the Leitra trolley (European patent EP 1165188). Until 2005 they built several prototype SH becak and quadricycles. In 1999 Harald Kutzke described the "active bike": the goal was to approach an ideal bike that did not weigh anything and had no obstacles by electronic compensation.

• The electric-oil hybrid bike series ( SHEPB ) is powered by pedals, batteries, gasoline generators, or plug-in chargers - provides flexibility and upgrades on electric bikes only.

The SHEPB prototype made by David Kitson in Australia in 2014 uses a lightweight DC brushless electric motor from the air drone and small internal combustion device, and a 3D print drive system and a lightweight housing, weighing less than 4.5 kg. Active cooling keeps the plastic parts from softening. The prototype uses the usual electric bicycle charge port.

Heavy vehicles

Hybrid electric trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric for electric train locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. The diesel/turbine engine drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump, which drives an electric/hydraulic motor - strictly electric/hydraulic transmission (not hybrid), unless it can receive external power. With large vehicle conversion losses, and the advantage of distributing power through cables or pipes rather than mechanical elements becomes more prominent, especially when moving multiple drives - ie. wheel or propellers are driven. To date, most heavy vehicles have little secondary energy storage, eg. batteries/hydraulic accumulators - except for non-nuclear submarines, one of the oldest production hybrids, which use diesel on surface and batteries when submerged. Both series and parallel arrangements are used in WW2 submarines.

Rail transport

Europe
The new Autorail ÃÆ' grande capacitÃÆ'Â © (AGC or high-capacity train) built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France is a diesel/electric motor, using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems. It was tested in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, the company of Genesse and Wyoming.

China
The first Hybrid Assessor Locomotive was designed by the MATRAI rail research center in 1999 and built in 2000. G12 locomotive is battery upgraded, 200 kW diesel generator and 4 AC motors.

Japan
Japan's first hybrid train with significant energy storage is the KiHa E200, with a lithium ion battery mounted on the roof.

India
India trains launch one of the CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015. This train has a 1400 hp engine that uses fumigation technology. The first of these trains is set to run on the route Rewari-Rohtak along the 81 km. CNG is a less polluting alternative to diesel and gasoline and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. Already many transportation vehicles such as pedicabs and buses run using CNG fuel.

North America
In the US, General Electric makes locomotives with sodium-nickel chloride battery storage (Na-NiCl ₂ ). They expect> = 10% fuel savings.

Locomotive diesel power variants include Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canadian Railpower Technologies, with lead acid battery (PBA) and 1000 to 2000 hp electric motors, and new clean burning of ~ 160 hp generator diesel. No fuel is wasted for idling - ~ 60-85% of the time for this type of locomotive. It is not clear whether regenerative braking is used; but in principle it's easy to use.

Since these machines typically require additional weight for traction purposes, the battery weight is a negligible penalty. Generators and diesel batteries are usually built on the "retired" locomotive frame of the "existing" page. The existing motors and equipment are all rebuilt and reused. Fuel savings of 40-60% and pollution reductions of up to 80% are claimed through a typical "old" switching/yard machine. The advantages of hybrid cars for frequent start and stop and idle periods apply to the use of distinctive yard switching. The "Green Goat" locomotive has been purchased by the Canadian Pacific Railway, the BNSF Railway, the Kansas City Southern Railway, and the Union Pacific Railroad.

Crane

Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are testing hybrid diesel powered units with battery storage for use in Crane Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG). RTG cranes are commonly used to load and dismantle shipping containers to trains or trucks at ports and container containers. The energy used to lift the container can be partially recovered when it is lowered. Diesel fuel and 50-70% emissions reductions are predicted by Railpower engineers. The first system is expected to operate in 2007.

Road transport, commercial vehicles

The hybrid system began to be used for heavy trucks, buses and other highway vehicles. Small fleet size and installation costs are offset against fuel savings. With advances such as higher capacity, lower battery costs, etc. Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduced hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city use seems to be competitive. FedEx and others are investing in hybrid delivery vehicles - especially for urban usage where hybrid technology can produce results first. In December 2013 FedEx is testing two delivery trucks with Wrightspeed electric motors and diesel generators; Retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves within a few years. Diesel engines run at constant RPM for peak efficiency.

In 1978, students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted the Volkswagen Beetle into a petro-hydraulic hybrid with off-shelf components. A car rated 32 mpg back at 75 mpg with a 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine, and reaches 70 mph. In the 1990s, engineers at EPA's National Vehicle and Fuel Emission Laboratory developed a petro-hydraulic powertrain for a typical American sedan. The test car reaches over 80 mpg on the combined driving cycle of the EPA city/highway. Acceleration is 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials are used. Estimated EPA produced in high volume, hydraulic components will only add a $ 700 cost. Under EPA testing, Ford's Ford hybrid expedition produces 32 mpg (7.4 L/100 km) City, and 22 mpg (11 L/100 km) Highway. UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.

Military off-road vehicles

Since 1985, the US military has tested the Humvee hybrid series and has found them to provide faster acceleration, stealth mode with low thermal signatures/close quiet operations, and greater fuel economy.

Ship

Ships with screens mounted on poles and steam engines are an early form of hybrid vehicles. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. It runs on batteries when submerged and the battery can be recharged by a diesel engine when the aircraft is on the surface.

The newer hybrid ship propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies like SkySails. Towing kites can fly at altitudes several times higher than the highest pole ships, capturing stronger and more steady winds.

Aircraft

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator has a fuel cell/lithium ion Battery Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) system to drive an electric motor, which is paired with a conventional propeller. Fuel cells provide all the power for the flight shipping phase. When taking off and climbing, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system uses a lightweight lithium-ion battery.

The demonstrator plane is a Dimona motor launcher, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also performs structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wingspan of 16.3 meters (53 feet), the aircraft will be able to sail at approximately 100 km/h (62 mph) on power from the fuel cell.

Hybrid FanWings have been designed. FanWing is made by two machines with the ability to autorotate and land like a helicopter.

Maps Hybrid vehicle

Machine type

Hybrid electric-oil vehicles

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to Hybrid electric vehicles. It includes vehicles like the Saturn Vue, Toyota Prius, Toyota Yaris, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h and 450h and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most often uses internal combustion engines (using a variety of fuels, generally gasoline or diesel engines) and electric motors to power the vehicle. Energy is stored in internal combustion engine fuel and a set of electric batteries. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from full hybrids to light hybrids, which offer various advantages and disadvantages.

William H. Patton filed for a patent for a gas-electric hybrid-electric rail-drive system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid-1889. There is no evidence that his hybrid boat met with any success, but he built a prototype hybrid tram and sell small hybrid locomotives.

In 1899, Henri Pieper developed the world's first petro-electric hybrid car. In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche developed the hybrid-series using two motor-in-wheel-hub settings with an internal generator generator that provides electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two speed records. While liquid/hybrid electric fuels date back to the end of the 19th century, regenerative braking hybrids were invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978-79. The converted Opel GT at home is reported to return as much as 75 mpg with plans still being sold to the original design, and a modified version of "Mother Earth News" on their website.

Plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming increasingly common. It has the required range in a location where there is a wide gap without service. The battery can be plugged into the home power (electricity) to charge, also when the machine is running.

Continuously rechargeable electric vehicle (COREV)

Some battery electric vehicles (BEV) can be recharged when the user drives. Such vehicles interact with electric rails, plates or overhead cables on the highway through installed conduction wheels or other similar mechanisms (see Conduit collection). BEV batteries are recharged by this process - on the road - and then can be used normally in another way until the battery is removed. For example, some battery electric locomotives used for maintenance trains in London Underground are capable of using this mode of operation.

Developing BEV infrastructure will benefit from unrestricted highways. Since many destinations are 100 km away from major highways, BEV technology can reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately, private use of existing electrical systems is almost universally prohibited. In addition, the technology for such electrical infrastructure is outdated and, outside some cities, not widely distributed (see current collection of Conduit, tram, electric rail, trolley, third rail). Updating the required electricity and infrastructure costs may be financed by toll revenues or with special transport taxes. Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that use different energy sources or input types ("fuel") using the same engine to become hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described in over and use correctly the term, this may be more appropriately described as a dual mode vehicle:

• Some electric trolleys can switch between on-board diesel engines and above power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this can be combined with battery subsystems to create the correct plug-in hybrid trolley, although in 2006, no designs appeared to have been announced.
• Vehicles with flexible fuels can use a mixture of input fuel mixed in one tank - usually gasoline and ethanol, methanol, or biobutanol.
• Bi-fuel vehicles: Gas oil and liquefied natural gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and can not be used in the same tank, making it impossible to build flexible fuel systems (LPG or NG). Instead the vehicle is built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one machine. For example, some Chevrolet Silverado 2500 HD can easily switch between petroleum and natural gas, offering a range of over 1000 km (650 miles). While duplicate tanks spend a lot of space in multiple applications, increased reach, reduced fuel costs, and flexibility in which incomplete LPG or CNG infrastructure may be a significant incentive to buy. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing rapidly, and already has 2600 CNG stations in place. With the infrastructure of fueling stations continuously increasing, large-scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles can be seen in the near future. Rising gas prices can also encourage consumers to buy these vehicles. When gas prices are trading around $ 4.00, the price per MMBTU of gasoline is $ 28.00, compared to natural gas $ 4.00 per MMBTU. On a per unit basis of comparative energy, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline. All these factors make the bi-fuel vehicle CNG-Gasoline very attractive.
• Some vehicles have been modified to use other fuel sources if available, such as modified cars to run on autogas (LPG) and diesel modified to run on unprocessed vegetable oil waste into biodiesel.
• Mechanism of power assistance for bicycles and other human powered vehicles is also included (see Motorcycle).

Fluid power grant

Hydraulic hybrid vehicles and pneumatic hybrids use engines to fill the pressure accumulator to drive the wheels through a hydraulic (liquid) or pneumatic (compressed air) drive unit. In many ways, the machine is detached from the drivetrain, which works only to charge the accumulator. Transmisinya smooth. Regenerative braking can be used to recover some of the drive energy supplied back to the accumulator.

Petro-air mixture

A French company, MDI, has designed and has run the model of a petro-air hybrid engine car. The system does not use an air motor to drive a vehicle, which is directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinder. The key aspect of a hybrid engine is the "active space", which is an air heating compartment through a fuel that doubles the energy output. Tata Motors India assesses the design phase towards full production for the Indian market and moves to "complete the detailed development of compressed air engines into specific vehicles and stationary applications".

Hydro-hydraulic hybrids

Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in railways and heavy vehicles for decades. The automotive industry has recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it now shows promise for introduction to smaller vehicles.

In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the system is more efficient than hybrids that use electric batteries using current electric battery technology, showing a 60% to 70% improvement in the energy economy in the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing. The filling machine only needs to be sized for average use with bursts of acceleration using the energy stored in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in a low-energy vehicle operation. The filling machine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and long life. Under tests conducted by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ford's Ford hybrid expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg _-imp ) City, and 22 miles per US Galon (11Ã, L/100Ã, km; 26 mpg _-low ) highway. UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.

Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been known for several decades, and is used in trains and very large construction vehicles, high equipment costs block the system from lighter trucks and cars. In a modern sense the experiment proved the feasibility of a small petro-hydraulic hybrid vehicle in 1978. A group of students in Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, transformed the Volkswagen Beetle car to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf components. Cars rated 32 mpg _-US (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg _-imp ) have returned 75 mpg _-US ( 3.1 Ã, L/100Ã, km; 90Ã, mpg _-imp ) with a 60Ã, hp engine replaced with a 16Ã, hp engine. Experimental car reaches 70 mph (110 km/h).

In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at the EPA's National Vehicle and Fuel Emission Laboratory successfully developed a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic powertrain that would drive a typical American sedan. The test car reaches over 80 mpg on the combined driving cycle of the EPA city/highway. Acceleration is 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials are used. EPA estimates produced in high-volume hydraulic components will add only $ 700 to the base cost of the vehicle.

The petro-hydraulic hybrid system has faster and more efficient charging/discharging cycles than petro-electric hybrids and is also less expensive to build. The size of the accumulator ship determines the total energy storage capacity and may require more space than a set of electric batteries. Any vehicle space consumed by the larger accumulator ship size can be offset by the need for smaller filling machines, in HP and physical size.

Research is being conducted in large companies and small companies. Focus is now shifting to smaller vehicles. Expensive system components that block installation in smaller trucks and cars. The drawback is that the driving force is not efficient enough when partially loaded. The British company (Artemis Intelligent Power) makes a breakthrough that introduces electronically controlled motors/hydraulic pumps, Motor/Digital Displacement pumps. These pumps are highly efficient at all speed and load ranges, providing eligibility for petro-hydraulic petroleum hybrid applications. The company changed the BMW car as a test bed to prove survival. BMW 530i, delivers twice the mpg in driving in the city compared to standard cars. This test uses a standard 3,000 cc engine, with a smaller engine, the numbers will be more impressive. The petro-hydraulic hybrid design using large-sized accumulators allows engine downsizing to average power usage, not peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the accumulator. Smaller and more efficient constant speed engines reduce weight and free up space for larger accumulators.

The vehicle body is currently designed around mechanically from the existing engine/transmission settings. It is very tight and far from ideal for installing petro-hydraulic mechanics into existing bodies that are not designed for hydraulic settings. One of the objectives of the research project is to create a new blank paper car design, to maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All major hydraulic components are integrated into the car's chassis. One design claims to have returned 130 mpg in testing using a large hydraulic accumulator that is also a car's structural chassis. The small hydraulic drive motor is incorporated in a wheel hub that moves the wheel and backs into the clay kinetir braking energy. Motor hub eliminates the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmission, drive shaft and U connection, reducing cost and weight. Hydrostatic drives without friction brakes are used in industrial vehicles. The goal is 170 mpg in average driving conditions. The energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that would normally be useless helps in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuel-sized piston engine for average power usage fills the accumulator. Accumulator sized while running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The goal is a fully charged accumulator that will produce acceleration speed 0-60 mph in under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.

In January 2011, industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain that is suitable for use in large passenger cars. In 2012, the existing production minivan is adjusted to the new hydraulic powertrain for assessment.

PSA Peugeot CitroÃÆ'Â nn exhibits an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. This vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from braking or deceleration to hydraulic driving power that adds power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components are supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Mileage is estimated at about 118 mpg _-US (2 L/100 km; 142 mpg _-imp ) on the Euro test cycle if installed in CitroÃÆ'¡n C3 body type. PSA Although the car is ready to be produced and proven and feasible to deliver the claimed results, Peugeot CitroÃÆ'ÃÆ'n can not attract large manufacturers to share high development costs and suspend projects until partnerships can be managed.

Hybrid electric-human vehicles

Another form of hybrid vehicle is a human power vehicle. These include vehicles such as the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bikes, and electric skateboards.

src: www.inside4tech.com

Hybrid vehicle power train configuration

Parallel hybrids

In parallel hybrid vehicles, electric motors and internal combustion engines are combined in such a way that they can power vehicles either individually or together. Most common internal combustion engines, electric motors and gear boxes are coupled with a controlled clutch automatically. For electric driving, the coupling between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gearbox is activated. While in burning mode, engines and motors run at the same speed.

The first mass-produced parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the first-generation Honda Insight.

Light parallel hybrids

This type uses generally compact electric motors (typically & lt; 20 kW) to provide the auto-stop/start feature and to provide extra power support during acceleration, and to produce in deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).

Examples on the road include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight 2nd generation, Honda CR-Z, Honda Accord Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7 Series hybrid, General Motors BAS Hybrids, Suzuki S-Cross, Suzuki Wagon R and Smart fortwo with a micro hybrid drive.

Power-split or parallel-series hybrid

In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: traction electric motor and internal combustion engine. The power of these two motors can be divided to drive the wheels through a power separator device, which is a simple planetary gear device. The ratio can be from 100% for the combustion engine up to 100% for traction electric motors, or anything in between, such as 40% for electric motors and 60% for combustion engines. The combustion engine can act as a generator that charges the battery.

Modern versions like the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive have a second electric motor/generator connected to planetary equipment. In cooperation with traction motors/generators and power-split devices it provides continuous variable transmission.

On the open road, the main power source is an internal combustion engine. When maximum power is required, for example to overtake, traction electric motors are used to help. This increases the power available for a short time, giving the effect of having a machine larger than it actually is installed. In most applications, the combustion engine is switched off when the car is slow or stationary thereby reducing roadside emissions.

Installation of passenger cars including Toyota Prius, Ford Escape and Fusion, as well as Lexus RX400h, RX450h, GS450h, LS600h, and CT200h.

Hybrid series

A series or hybrid vehicle is powered by an electric motor, serving as an electric vehicle while energy supply enough battery packs, with a machine set to run as a generator when the battery is insufficient. There is usually no mechanical connection between the engine and the wheel, and the main purpose of the extender range is to charge the battery. The hybrid-series has also been referred to as a long-range electric vehicle, range-extended electric vehicle, or extended electric vehicle range (EREV/REEV/EVER).

BMW i3 with Range Extender is a hybrid-production series. It operates as an electric vehicle until the battery charge is low, and then activates a machine-powered generator to maintain power, and is also available without the extender range. The Fisker Karma is the first production-series hybrid vehicle.

When describing a car, a series hybrid battery is usually charged with plugged - but the series hybrid also allows the battery to act only as a buffer (and for regeneration purposes), and to power the electric motor for continuous feeding by the support machine. Series settings have been common in locomotives and diesel-electric vessels. Ferdinand Porsche effectively found this arrangement in a speed-setting race car early in the 20th century, such as the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid. Porsche named the "Mixt System" arrangement and it is a wheel hub motor design, where each of the two front wheels is powered by a separate motor. This arrangement is sometimes referred to as power transmission , because the electric generator and motor drive replace the mechanical transmission. The vehicle can not move unless the internal combustion engine is running.

In 1997 Toyota released the first hybrid bus series sold in Japan. GM introduced the Chevy Volt plug-in hybrid series in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 mi (64 km), although this car also has a mechanical connection between the engine and the drivetrain. Supercapacitors combined with the lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using their supercapacitor claims up to 150 mpg in a hybrid-series arrangement.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle plug-in (PHEV)

Another subtype of a hybrid vehicle is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). Plug-in hybrids are generally common electric (parallel or serial) hybrid fuels with increased energy storage capacity, usually through lithium-ion batteries, allowing the vehicle to drive on an all-electric distance mode that depends on battery size and mechanical layout (series or parallel). It may be connected to the main power supply at the end of the trip to avoid charging using an on-board internal combustion engine.

This concept appeals to those who want to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding - or at least minimizing - the use of ICE during everyday driving. Like pure electric vehicles, total emissions savings, for example in CO ₂ terms, depend on the energy source of the power generation company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive as long as the electrical energy used is cheaper than the gasoline/diesel used. The current tax system in many European countries uses mineral oil taxation as the main source of income. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for domestic customers, but the person uses it. Some power suppliers also offer price benefits for overnight users outside of peak hours, which can further increase the appeal of plug-in options for commuters and urban riders.

Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2009 report examines hybrid electric vehicle accidents involving pedestrians and cyclists and compares it to accidents involving internal combustion vehicles (ICEV). The findings show that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those walking or cycling. For accidents in which vehicles slow down or stop, retreat, enter or leave the parking lot (when the difference in sound between HEVs and ICEVs is most prominent), HEVs are twice as likely to engage in pedestrian accidents than ICEVs. For accidents involving cyclists or pedestrians, there is a higher incidence rate for HEV than ICEV when the vehicle turns round the corner. But there is no significant difference between the types of vehicles when they are driving straight.

Some automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and electric vehicles (EVs) traveling at low speed. Their goal is to make pedestrians, cyclists, blind people, and others aware of the presence of vehicles while operating in an all-electric fashion.

Vehicles in the market with such security devices include Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga Hybrid/Infiniti M35, Hyundai ix35 FCEV, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, 2012 Toyota 2012 Hybrid, 2012 Lexus CT200h, and all Prius family cars were recently introduced, including the 2012 model of the standard Prius, the Toyota Prius v, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid.

src: cmfenews.com

Environmental issues

Fuel consumption and emissions reductions

Hybrid vehicles typically achieve greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions produced. This savings are mainly achieved by three distinctive hybrid design elements:

1. Rely on electric engines and motors for peak power requirements, resulting in smaller engine sizes more for average use than peak power usage. Smaller machines can have less internal losses and lower weights.
2. Has significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recovered energy, especially in typical stop-and-air traffic from the city's driving cycle.
3. Returns significant amounts of energy during braking which is usually wasted as heat. This regenerative braking reduces the speed of a vehicle by converting a portion of kinetic energy into electricity, depending on the power rating of the motor/generator;

Other techniques that are not always 'hybrid' features, but are often found in hybrid vehicles include:

1. Use the Atkinson cycle engine instead of the Otto cycle engine to improve fuel economy.
2. Turns off the engine when traffic stops or when it skips or during another silent period.
3. Increases aerodynamics; (Part of the reason that SUVs get bad fuels like the economy is an obstacle to the car.A car or box-shaped truck must exert more power to move through the air causing more pressure on the machine that makes it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of the car is a good way to help better fuel economy and also improve vehicle handling at the same time.
4. Using tires with low rolling resistance (tires are often made to provide quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency is a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical barriers, again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are higher than ordinary and rigid tires or with a choice of carcass structure and rubber compounds have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grips, and thereby improving fuel economy regardless of source of energy.
5. Enables a/c, power steering, and other electrical pumps as and when necessary; this reduces mechanical losses when compared to driving continuously with traditional machine belts.

These features make hybrid vehicles highly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, gliding and idling periods. In addition, noise emissions are reduced, especially during idling and low operating speed, compared to conventional engine vehicles. For the continuous use of high-speed toll roads, these features are far less useful in reducing emissions.

Hybrid vehicle emissions

Emissions of current hybrid vehicles are getting closer to or even lower than the recommended levels set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended level they recommend for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons CO ₂ . The three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set a higher standard by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a large increase in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles can reduce air emissions from polluting pollutants by up to 90% and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by half.

More fossil fuels are needed to build hybrid vehicles than conventional cars but reduce emissions when running more vehicles than this.

Environmental impact of hybrid car battery

Although hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there are still problems with environmental damage from hybrid car batteries. Currently most hybrid car batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are considered more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries that make up the lion's share of today's gasoline starter batteries. There are many types of batteries. Some are much more toxic than others. The lithium ion is the most non-toxic of the two mentioned above.

The degree of toxicity and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries - the type currently used in hybrids - is much lower than batteries such as lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one source. Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling and disposing of them safely is difficult. In general, various insoluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have been known to be carcinogenic effects on chicken and mouse embryos. The main nickel compound in a NiMH battery is nickel oxihroxide (NiOOH), which is used as a positive electrode.

Lithium-ion batteries have attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps protect the environment with features such as increased cost efficiency without memory effect. The lithium-ion batteries are attractive because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable battery and can generate more than three times the voltage of a nickel-metal hydride battery cell while storing large quantities of electricity as well. The battery also produces higher output (increased vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoids wasted electricity use), and provides excellent durability, compared to battery life that is roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle. In addition, the use of lithium-ion batteries reduces overall vehicle weight and also achieves a 30% better fuel economy improvement than petro powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO ₂ emissions that help prevent global warming..

Charging

There are two different charging levels. Charge level one is a slower method because it uses a single phase V/15 phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; The existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 V or 240 V (up to 80 A, 19.2 kW). This may require special equipment and installation of connections for home or public units, although vehicles such as Tesla have electronic power on the board and need only an outlet. The optimal charging window for a lithium ion battery is 3-4.2 V. Recharge with a 120 volt household socket takes several hours, 240 volt charger takes 1-4 hours, and fast charging takes about 30 minutes to reached 80% cost. Three important factors - distance on charge, charge charge, and time to charge In order for hybrids to run on electric power, the car must take braking action to generate electricity. Electricity is then discarded most effectively when the car accelerates or climbs a hill. In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can only run with electricity as far as 70-130 km (110-210 km) with a single charge. The current capacity of hybrid batteries ranges from 4.4 kWh to 85 kWh in fully electric cars. In hybrid cars, battery packs currently range from 0.6 kWh to 2.4 kWh representing a big difference in the use of electricity in hybrid cars.

Raw materials increase cost

There is an upcoming increase in the cost of many of the rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars. For example, rare earth elements of dysprosium are required to make many sophisticated electric motors and battery systems in a hybrid propulsion system. Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is an essential material in the high strength magnets found in permanent magnetized electric motors.

Almost all the rare earth elements in the world come from China, and many analysts believe that the overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume all of this supply by 2012. In addition, export quotas on rare earth elements of China have produced an unknown amount of supply.

Some non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada and Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development; However, the entry barrier is high and takes years to get online.

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How hybrid electric vehicles work

Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantages of gasoline engines and electric motors. The main areas for efficiency or performance improvement are regenerative braking, multiple resources, and less idling.

• Brake Regeneration. Drivetrain can be used to convert kinetic energy (from moving car) into stored electrical energy (battery). The same electric motor that drives the drivetrain is used to withstand the movement of the drivetrain. This applied resistance of the electric motor causes the wheel to slow down and simultaneously recharge the battery.
• Multiple Power. Power can come from a machine, a motor, or both depending on driving conditions. Additional power to assist the engine in accelerating or climbing may be provided by an electric motor. Or more generally, smaller electric motors provide all the power for low-speed driving conditions and coupled with engines at higher speeds.
• Start Auto/Shutoff. Automatically turns off the engine when the vehicle stops and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed. This automation is much simpler with an electric motor. See also the double power above.

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Alternative green vehicle

Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that are completely or partially in alternative energy sources rather than fossil fuels. Another option is to use alternative fuel compositions (ie biofuels) on conventional fossil fuel vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.

Other approaches include a quick personal transit, a public transportation concept that offers on-demand automation of nonstop transportation, on specially-built network guideways.

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Peugeot/CitroÃÆ' «Â« Hybrid Vehicle

Peugeot and CitroÃÆ'¡n announced that they are also building a car that uses compressed air as a source of energy. However, the car they designed using a hybrid system that also uses a gasoline engine (which is used to push the car more than 70 km/h, or when the compressed air tank has been exhausted.

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Marketing

Automakers spend about $ US8 million in marketing Hybrid vehicles every year. With the combined efforts of many car companies, the Hybrid industry has sold millions of Hybrids. Hybrid car companies such as Toyota, Honda, Ford and BMW have united to create a Hybrid vehicle sales movement driven by Washington lobbyists to reduce world emissions and become less dependent on our oil consumption. In 2005, sales surpassed 200,000 Hybrids, but in retrospect that only reduced global use for gasoline consumption by 200,000 gallons per day - a fraction of the 360 ​​million gallons used per day. According to Bradley Berman the author of Driving Change - One Hybrid at one time, "The cold economy shows that in real dollars, except for a brief spike in the 1970s, gas prices remain very stable and cheap." Fuel continues to be a fraction of the total cost of ownership and the operation of private vehicles ". Other marketing tactics include greenwashing which is "an unjustifiable seizure of environmental good". Temma Ehrenfeld explained in an article by Newsweek. Hybrids may be more efficient than many other gasoline motors as far as gasoline consumption but so far green and good for environment is completely inaccurate. Hybrid car companies have a long time to go if they hope to really be green. According to Harvard business professor Theodore Levitt states "managing products" and "meeting customer needs", "you have to adapt to consumer expectations and anticipate future desires." This means people buy what they want, if they want a fuel-efficient car they buy Hybrid without thinking about the efficiency of the actual product. This "Green Myopia" as Ottman says, fails because the marketer focuses on the greenness of the product and not on its true effectiveness. Researchers and analysts say people are interested in new technologies, as well as less charging convenience. Second, people are happy to have a better, newer, cooler, and more environmentally friendly car. At the start of the Hybrid Movement car companies are reaching out to youngsters, using top celebrities, astronauts, and popular TV shows to market Hybrid. This makes Hybrid new technology a status to be gained for many people and a must to be cool or even a practical option for the time being. With many benefits and Hybrid status, it is easy to think that this is the right thing to do, but the reality may not be as green as it looks.

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Adoption rate

While the adoption rate for hybrids in the US is currently small (2.2% of new car sales in 2011), this compares to a 17.1% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011, and has the potential to be very large over time to time due to the more models being offered and the additional costs decreased due to the benefits of learning and scale. However, the estimates vary widely. For example, Bob Lutz, who is long skeptical about hybrids, indicated that he expects hybrids "will never reach more than 10% of the US car market." Other sources also predict that the rate of hybrid penetration in the US will remain below 10% for years.

A more upbeat outlook in 2006 included predictions that hybrids will dominate new car sales in the US and elsewhere over the next 10 to 20 years. Another approach, taken by Saurin Shah, examines the penetration rate (or S-curve) of four analogs (historical and current) for hybrid and electric vehicles in an attempt to measure how quickly a vehicle's stock can be hybridized and/or powered in the United States. Analogues are (1) electric motors in US plants in the early 20th century, (2) diesel electric locomotives in US railways in the period 1920-1945, (3) new features/technology introduced in the US over the past fifty years , and 4) e-bike purchases in China over the past few years. These analysts collectively suggest it will require at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of US passenger vehicle stock.

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European Union Regulatory Standards 2020

The European Parliament, the Council and the European Commission have reached an agreement aimed at reducing the average passenger car emissions of CO2 to 95 g/km by 2020, according to a European Commission press release.

According to the release, the main details of the agreement are as follows:

Emission targets: This agreement will reduce the average CO2 emissions from new cars to 95 g/km from 2020, as proposed by the Commission. This is a 40% reduction of the mandatory 2015 target of 130 g/km. The target is the average for each new car manufacturer's fleet; it enables OEMs to build multiple vehicles that emit less than average and some that emit more. Target 2025: The Commission is requested to propose further emission reduction targets by the end of 2015 to take effect by 2025. This target will be in line with the EU's long-term climate goals. Supercredits for low-emission vehicles: Regulations will provide additional incentives to manufacturers to produce cars with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km or less (which will be an electric car or plug-in hybrid). Each of these vehicles will be counted as two vehicles by 2020, 1.67 in 2021, 1.33 in 2022 and then as a single vehicle from 2023 onwards. This superkredit will help producers reduce the average emissions of their new fleet of cars. However, to prevent schemes from damaging the environmental integrity of the legislation, there will be 2.5 g/km cap per manufacturer for the contribution that supercredit can make to their targets in any year.

src: i.bnet.com

See also

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References

src: hybridcars.ucoz.com

External links

• Hybrid Tax Pilot Program
• The Scuderi Group to Present Preliminary Results on the Air-Hybrid Study and Renewal on Scuderi's Prototype Testing at the Washington Auto Show
• Future Flights (Obese Pelicans to Switchblade Shape-Shifting)

Source of the article : Wikipedia